Analyzing the Spatial Effects of International Trade on the Ecological Footprint: Evidence from 158 Countries

International trade boosts growth but raises environmental pressures captured by the ecological footprint (EF). Yet spatial spillovers separating direct from indirect cross-border influences remain underexplored. Using 158 countries and a dynamic panel spatial Durbin model with fixed effects (DPSDM-FE), we find that a country’s own trade has no significant effect on its EF, while spillovers from neighbors’ trade are dominant and significant, accounting for about 87% of the total effect. Results are robust to alternative dependent variables, spatial weight matrices, and endogeneity checks. The transboundary nature of impacts calls for coordinated trade–environment policies and international agreements to align integration with sustainability.